by Sakhodulla Shomirzaev, Law Enforcement Academy of Uzbekistan
As an employee of the Law Enforcement Academy of the Republic of Uzbekistan, I had the unique opportunity to take part in a one-month internship at Lund University in Sweden during April–May 2025. Throughout this program, I explored the lives and experiences of Northern European countries within the framework of my own research, drawing comparisons with the current situation in my homeland.
One of the most striking aspects of the internship was the richness of the university’s libraries. I was genuinely impressed by the abundance of electronic resources and the seamless connection Lund University has with the libraries of other renowned European institutions. In particular, the Department of Sociology of Law and the Faculty of Law libraries played a crucial role in supporting our academic work.
Beyond the university, the city libraries of Lund and Malmö stood out as shining examples of accessibility and modern infrastructure. These public spaces were not only well-stocked with diverse literature but also offered excellent conditions for study and reflection. Truly, they are something to be admired.
At the same time, I had a strong desire to continue developing my research and further improve my English skills. With this goal in mind, I was planning to purchase some books for personal study. To my delight, I discovered a wonderful tradition both at the Sociology of Law Department library and in a nearby bookstore: a special section where discounted books were made available for students and researchers. This thoughtful initiative turned out to be exactly what I needed — a perfect opportunity to expand my personal library without straining my budget.
Right at the beginning of the internship, my colleague and I had the pleasure of attending a truly inspiring event organized by the department — a beautiful gathering that brought together current students and successful alumni who had graduated in this very field. Hearing their stories and learning about their career paths after university was not only beneficial for the students but also deeply motivating for us as visiting researchers. Events like these create an atmosphere of aspiration and encouragement that lingers long after they end.
We also had the opportunity to attend a scholarly seminar led by a doctoral candidate (Heraclitos Muhire) conducting research at the department. The topic of the research itself immediately caught our interest, but what made the event truly remarkable was the lively and thoughtful discussion that followed. The comments, suggestions, and constructive feedback offered by professors and faculty members to the researcher not only deepened our understanding of the subject but also sparked even greater curiosity and academic enthusiasm in us.
In the third week of the internship, we had the opportunity to take part in an academic conference — an experience that proved both meaningful and rewarding. I myself delivered a presentation titled “Combating and Preventing Corruption: International Practice and National Legislation”, based on insights gathered during the previous fifteen days of research, observation, and direct engagement with Northern European — particularly Swedish — society. The conference not only allowed me to share my findings but also became a valuable platform for professional exchange. As a result, I gained important knowledge and insights in three key areas: anti-corruption efforts, migration policy, and the protection of the rights of persons with disabilities.
In addition, I believe the internship proved highly beneficial for me — both academically and practically — thanks to the wealth of resources available in the libraries, the guidance of project supervisors, the support of faculty members, and the diverse perspectives shared by fellow interns from different countries. Equally enriching were the everyday interactions with members of Swedish society, which provided firsthand insights into their way of life. As one of the outcomes of my research, I prepared and presented a scholarly article titled “Interrogation of Individuals Suspected of Committing Corruption Offenses”, further solidifying the academic value of this internship.
I cannot conclude without mentioning Sweden’s clean air and highly efficient public transport system. These are true assets not only for local students but also for international researchers and interns. Breathing fresh, oxygen-rich air provides just the right atmosphere for creative and focused academic work. The ability to travel to and from the university quickly and reliably also leaves room for planning other tasks outside of study hours. In conclusion, I firmly believe that Sweden — and Lund University in particular — offers an ideal environment for conducting research in every possible sense.
By Avazbek Komilov, Visiting Researcher from the Law Enforcement Academy of the Republic of Uzbekistan, PhD, docent.
I am Avazbek Komilov, Head of the Department of Prosecutorial Activity and Prosecutorial Supervision at the Law Enforcement Academy of the Republic of Uzbekistan.
I first learned about Lund University in Sweden about five years ago. Its consistent ranking among the world’s top 100 universities and the strong endorsements I received from colleagues, who had trained there captured my attention. They spoke highly of the university’s academic environment and excellent research infrastructure. Since then, it had been my professional goal to one day visit Lund and enhance my own academic and research capacities within its scholarly environment.
In 2025, this aspiration was realized through my participation in the international research project “MARS: Non-Western Migration Regimes in a Global Perspective.” from April 15 to May 15, I served as a visiting researcher at Lund University under the framework of this initiative.
The city of Lund itself made a lasting impression on me. It is a beautiful and well-organized town, marked by clean air, efficient infrastructure, and a tranquil atmosphere. What stood out most was the modest and composed demeanor of its residents. The people of Lund lead simple, unpretentious lives, placing little value on luxury or outward display. They are calm, polite, and always willing to offer assistance — an admirable example of community values and interpersonal respect.
From the very first day on campus, I understood why Lund University is so highly regarded globally. The facilities provided for students and researchers are exceptional. The campus is not only aesthetically pleasing but also purposefully designed to support deep academic engagement. Numerous dedicated spaces foster collaboration, critical discussions, and scholarly debate. I had the opportunity to observe and participate in this vibrant academic culture.
A particular highlight of my stay was the university’s library system. The main university library is among the most prestigious in Europe, and many faculties maintain their own specialized libraries as well. All are equipped with vast academic resources and cutting-edge technology. The reading halls are welcoming, modern, and conducive to focused study. During my research, I made extensive use of the Sociology of Law Department’s library, where I accessed a wealth of relevant literature and also benefited from the digital library’s vast offerings.
The social and professional culture of the Sociology of Law Department also stood out. Every Wednesday, faculty and researchers gather informally over breakfast to exchange ideas and discuss ongoing work. These gatherings foster a collegial atmosphere and encourage collaboration in a relaxed, productive setting.
The academic environment at the department was equally impressive. I immersed myself in both the teaching and research processes, gaining valuable insights into innovative academic practices and methodologies. Most significantly, my research experience at Lund laid a solid foundation for advancing the quality and effectiveness of my future work.
The department’s rich academic legacy in research methodology helped me realize that the core aim of research is not merely to identify and address surface-level problems but to thoroughly analyze and understand the systemic conditions that give rise to them. During my stay, I also took part in several academic seminars and conference that enriched my knowledge and provided me with new skills aligned with contemporary research standards.
Beyond academic growth, this experience also contributed to my personal development. I returned home with not only deeper knowledge, but also a broader outlook on life and academia.
I would like to extend my heartfelt gratitude to Rustamjon Urinboev, Sherzod Eraliev, Dilaver Khamzaev, and Chekhros Kilichova for their invaluable support throughout my research secondment. I sincerely hope to continue collaborating with this exceptional team on future projects and academic publications that will contribute meaningfully to the development of our Academy and our country.
by Agus Indiyanto, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia
Introduction
Mobility—in its most literal sense, the physical movement from one place to another—has always played a crucial role in the academic world. On an individual level, such movement opens up space for scholars to gain new experiences and perspectives in understanding phenomena. Being removed, even temporarily, from one’s institutional and intellectual home can create the distance necessary for reflective self-questioning. Secondment, as I understand it, is not merely about transferring one’s academic affiliation from one institution to another. It is a form of openness: to other experiences, other perspectives, and other scholarly practices. At the same time, it is a strategic move to strengthen institutional networks and global collaboration.
My experience as an anthropologist undergoing secondment at Leiden University bears a resemblance to the Minangkabau cultural tradition of merantau. This concept, which I regularly discuss in my ethnographic course on the Sumatran region, refers to a culturally embedded practice of temporary migration. Minangkabau men leave their hometowns in search of livelihood, education, or experience, with the intention of eventually returning home to contribute to their community’s development (Naim, 1979). Scholars have also interpreted merantau as a rite of passage—one that matures the individual for future responsibilities within the community (see Kato, 1982).
I propose that secondment can be understood as a process of academic maturation, involving a liminal stage as described by Victor Turner. It is not merely relocation. It is a transformation of identity—a transition into a liminal space, where roles and norms are blurred. In this ambiguous space, scholars are given the rare chance to critically reflect on the foundations of their field. During my time in Leiden, I was no longer a teacher, yet not a student either. I was in between—occupying an academic in-betweenness that forced me to renegotiate my scholarly identity, my pedagogical practices, and my own anthropological lens. Interactions with colleagues from diverse intellectual traditions created what I would call productive epistemological friction, challenging many assumptions I had long taken for granted. It is precisely this tension that lies at the heart of what I call academic merantau.
In-Between Spaces: Daily Life and Academic Liminality
I must admit—adjusting to life in the Netherlands, particularly during the winter months, was far from easy. I arrived in the fall, when temperatures had already begun to drop sharply, and before long, they plunged below freezing. As someone from the tropics, my body was not accustomed to such cold. I clung to the hope of witnessing snowfall—the kind seen in movies and postcards—as a motivation to endure. And yes, it did snow, but only lightly and briefly, not nearly enough for the picturesque social media posts I had imagined. In the midst of all that cold, simple things like eating Indonesian instant noodles (now conveniently available at local supermarkets) brought unexpected comfort, especially while reading or drafting academic papers.
I couldn’t secure housing in Leiden itself due to the shortage of available rooms. Despite reaching out to friends already studying there, I arrived in the Netherlands without a confirmed place to stay. Eventually, I found accommodation in another city, Nijmegen, and thanks to the Netherlands’ reliable public transport, I managed the commute, though it was physically tiring. I must take the first train in Leiden and return to Nijmegen late at night to get the train discount.
Leiden University Library quickly became my second home. I had long set my sights on this institution, drawn by its remarkable collections on colonial history and Indonesian studies. My research focuses on a community whose development was deeply shaped by colonial governance in the Padang highlands after the Padri Wars. This village has produced generations of colonial-era bureaucrats and later, civil servants in post-independence Indonesia (see Graves, Hadler). One of its most prominent figures was H. Agoes Salim, an influential diplomat in Indonesia’s early republican years. The integration of the KITLV library, with its vast holdings on Indonesian colonial-era ethnography, into the Leiden University Library further cemented its value for my research. The reading room itself was almost always full. Students are absorbed in their own worlds, silently reading, typing, occasionally whispering short greetings.
That quietude compelled me to pursue academia. I found myself imitating the rhythm around me—sifting through catalogues, reading intensively, highlighting important citations, and writing regularly. Ironically, this solitude became a crucial catalyst for thinking and producing. Back in Yogyakarta, even with a private workspace, interruptions were constant, students dropping by for thesis consultations or course discussions. There, the responsibilities tied to my institutional role as a lecturer left little room for the kind of reflective quiet, I found in Leiden. For the first time, I was untethered: no need to teach, to rush home, or to hold office hours. I could finally redefine myself and reflect freely.
This liminal state reminded me of Arjun Appadurai’s concept of disjuncture—the asynchronous flows of people, ideas, technologies, and finance in a globalized world. My secondment placed me squarely at the intersection of such disjunctures. I carried methods and concepts shaped by my ethnographic work in Indonesian contexts and brought them into conversations shaped by postcolonial theory, alternative epistemologies, and ontological debates rooted in vastly different worlds.
Of course, not all encounters were frictional. There were also profound moments of resonance—particularly in small Indonesian studies circles in the Netherlands. At the time, I was writing about belonging and explored it through the lens of merantau among Minangkabau migrants in Jakarta. One critical question emerged in discussion: is it still appropriate to use the term merantau for Minangkabau communities that have lived in Jakarta for generations? This question forced me to reexamine the assumptions I had unconsciously accepted—treating all those living outside their ancestral homeland as migrants, without accounting for generational shifts and new forms of connectivity that shape belonging today.
To understand why descendants from Kotogadang continue to hold elaborate traditional ceremonies for installing clan leaders (pengangkatan panghulu), I had to leap across various theoretical approaches. Functionalism didn’t quite capture it. I tried Marxist readings—thinking in terms of status contests—and eventually turned to structuralist perspectives. Ultimately, I found comfort in Janet Carsten’s concept of relatedness, which better captured the affective and social textures I was observing. This kind of conceptual flexibility was only possible because I had the space to be alone, freed from administrative duties, and surrounded by resources like those at the Leiden University Library.
Reflection
For me, Leiden University offered a paradox: quietude amidst intellectual turbulence. While the canals outside remained calm and picturesque, my mind was bustling with debates about how best to frame the concept of belonging. In its silent reading rooms, I rediscovered the joy of engaging with classical anthropological texts—without pressure, without deadlines. I revisited old fieldnotes and wrote with a clarity I had not felt in years.
If I may summarize, the true value of secondment lies not merely in “knowledge transfer” or “capacity building.” It lies in the creation of a liminal space where deep academic transformation can occur. Such experiences are especially valuable for anthropologists, who are continually asked to be contextual, open, and reflexive. To become a stranger, to be alone, to feel vulnerable and uncomfortable—these are not merely hardships. They are the very conditions for empathy, which is the foundation of ethnographic understanding. At the same time, stepping away from one’s home institution and immersing oneself in another allows for comparison—helping us see both the strengths and weaknesses on each side. This becomes a basis for institutional benchmarking and future development.
For me personally, secondment was more than just an academic journey—it was an existential one. A kind of intellectual pilgrimage that was both unsettling and liberating. As the Minangkabau proverb wisely says, “Karatau madang di hulu, babuah babungo balun; marantau bujang dahulu, di kampuang paguno balun.” One must journey outward before one can bring value back home. Academic merantau is, indeed, a path to cultivating knowledge that matters—not only for our disciplines, but for humanity more broadly.
by Tiina Sotkasiira, University of Eastern Finland
I had the pleasure of visiting the University of Bristol’s Law School in May–July 2025. My visit was hosted by Professor Diego Acosta Arcarazo and Dr Kathryn Allinson, who gave me a warm welcome and provided valuable support during my two-month research visit. I truly appreciated the opportunity to spend time in such a stimulating environment and to connect with colleagues working on related topics. Together, we organised a seminar at the Law School, in which I was able to introduce the participants to the MARS project and my own research on the diaspora politics of Russian and Russian-speaking migration in Finland. My focus was on media use and reflections on how Russian migration has become politicised since the annexation of Crimea in 2014, and particularly since the outbreak of the full-scale war in Ukraine in 2022. While it is not currently possible to conduct research in Russia, there are many relevant research topics on migration governance in post-Soviet space for us to consider.
During my time in Bristol, I concentrated on researching topics that are linked to my own work as well as to the MARS project. I had the pleasure of attending numerous seminars and events organised by Migration Mobilities Bristol (MMB), which is a research institute and an interdisciplinary network of academics and others based at the University of Bristol. I was deeply impressed by the high quality of events being held, as well as the wide variety of research on international migration within and between the so-called Western and non-Western countries. I attended seminars on topics, such as research methods, border studies, discrimination, and (anti-)racism, and wrote a blog post to reflect on the lessons learned. The Finnish-language post entitled The legacy of colonialism in researchhttps://blogs.uef.fi/ktl/2025/05/22/kolonialismi/ was published in the blog of Karelian Institute, which is the MARS project partner in University of Eastern Finland. In addition, I wrote a paper, which is still under review in a journal, so I am not able to give the details of it just yet.
From the perspective of the MARS project, a particularly noteworthy event was organised by Dr Levana Magnus, her colleagues, and the Somali Kitchen organisation, focusing on employment opportunities and challenges faced by women of refugee and migrant backgrounds in Bristol. The meeting was attended by researchers from the University of Bristol, women who had participated in the research, several local politicians, and professionals working to promote the employment and education of women with refugee backgrounds.
A key insight was that the governance of global migration does not end once individuals cross borders and settle in a new country. Policies and practices aimed at supporting employment and integration continue to shape the everyday lives of migrants long after resettlement. For me personally, it was particularly interesting to compare the opportunity structures for employment in my home region of North Karelia with those in Bristol, which is one of Britain’s most international cities. Despite the vastly different contexts, the women’s experiences revealed surprising similarities. It is hard work to obtain employment as racialized woman of migration background. At the same time, such comparative settings prompt critical reflection on assumptions or practices that may appear self-evident in one context but become questionable when viewed from another. The debate at the seminar also raised questions in my mind about the continuous impacts of Brexit, as women were finding it difficult to accept employment due to the lack of childcare opportunities available close to their homes. A shared problem was that daycare facilities were closed due to shortage of staff.
Bristol is a highly international city, but it was also, for over a century, one of Europe’s major centres of the transatlantic slave trade. Although slavery as a legal institution has been abolished, contemporary international migration continues to be shaped by discrimination and experiences akin to exploitative labour practices. Bristol offered rich material and ample opportunities for examining and understanding both historical and present-day migration dynamics: In addition to the relevant research conducted at the University of Bristol, the city’s vibrant cultural life provided numerous events, exhibitions, discussions, and encounters that opened up new interpretative perspectives for my own research on international migration. The history of resistance is very much alive in Bristol and coexists with contemporary struggles.
Examples from the art exhibition at Arnolfini, Bristol’s International Centre for Contemporary Arts
I am grateful to the MARS project for the opportunity to broaden my thinking, and I hope to be able to extend a similar welcome to fellow researchers from the project in Joensuu.
Salem from Kazakhstan! I am Vishwesh Sundar, currently a lecturer of International Relations at Leiden University in the Netherlands. I had the opportunity to travel on secondment to Nazarbayev University (NU) in Astana, Kazakhstan, as part of the MARS staff exchange program. During July and August 2025, I conducted fieldwork examining the effect of sanctions on Russia on remittance flows to Central Asia. I was particularly interested in studying how Central Asian countries navigate the double-edged sword situation – on the one hand, being reliant on Russia for remittances, which is a lifeline in these countries, and on the other hand, pressured to enforce sanctions on Russia that adversely impact remittance flows, failing which they would be threatened with secondary sanctions.
Personally, I felt my secondment had already begun in June, as I had to complete many administrative procedures and had already tried to establish professional connections in Kazakhstan in preparation for my secondment. For example, I had to get my ethics review and data protection forms approved since I was conducting interviews, and make arrangements for my insurance, travel and stay in Astana. Moreover, since it was the first time that I undertook fieldwork, that too in a region that I was initially not familiar with, there was a lot of self-learning involved. Nevertheless, I chose to go outside my comfort zone and research my topic in the context of Central Asia, given the region’s theoretical and practical relevance. Countries such as Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan have consistently ranked among the world’s most remittance-dependent economies in the world, and have experienced disruptions in their migration and remittance patterns following the sanctions imposed on Russia in 2022. It would not be wrong to claim that when ‘Russia sneezes, Central Asia catches a cold’!
I believe the best way to illustrate my experience during the secondment is by describing a typical day over the two months. Every morning, despite the thick curtains in my University housing, I was woken up early because of the piercing sunrays (sunrise can be as early as 4:30 am in the summer months in Astana!). I would then either do some background readings or conduct interviews. I was primarily interested in studying the disruptions (or not) to the existing channels of remittances in the Russia-Central Asia migration corridors, and possible alternative formal and informal remittance channels that may have developed following the imposition of sanctions on Russia in 2022. In July, I scheduled a few interviews with academics and policymakers in Kazakhstan, and in August, I interviewed a few Russian migrants, primarily in Kazakhstan, with the help of my Research Assistant Aida Yessimova. In between, I would dedicate a few days to pen down some of the main arguments of my research paper. I would end the day by playing cricket with fellow students or by taking a stroll across the campus or the city.
There was no shortage of workspaces at the host institution, Nazarbayev University, also considering most of the staff and students were on summer vacation during most of my secondment period. NU has a new (the University just celebrated its 15th anniversary this year!) and sprawling campus with many student amenities, which sometimes felt like living in a mini city. It took me a few weeks to get acquainted with the large campus, but it helped me hit the 10k steps a day mark. Being a vegetarian, the only difficulty I faced during the secondment was finding eateries with veg options. Upon arriving, I learnt of the popular proverb that “the only creatures that eat more meat than Kazakhs are wolves”, but I soon learnt to adapt and cooked food myself. However, the temperate weather and clear blue skies, which are a rarity in the Netherlands, compensated for this minor discomfort.
Towards the end of August, I had the opportunity to present the initial findings of my research during the PSIR (Political Science and International Relations) Faculty Lecture Series, following which I received some valuable feedback from colleagues. During the lecture, I shared a few key takeaways from the interviews with the migrants, which are the following. They mentioned that while sanctions had generally disrupted their preferred remittance channels, they added that there are ‘always alternatives’ that emerge, which they learn about from their networks or Telegram channels. While these new channels are less convenient or slower than the conventional ones, the migrants have adapted to the ‘new normal’. There has also been a recent surge in the use of Cryptocurrency as a remittance channel, especially among the younger age groups. The consensus among the respondents suggests that while the sanctions imposed on Russia since 2022 have been the harshest in history, the effectiveness of the sanctions might be waning over time.
There is a big list of people to thank for making my secondment a success, including all the interviewees who took the time to respond to my questions. I would especially like to thank Dr. Crystal Ennis and Dr. Katharina Natter from Leiden University for selecting my research proposal for this grant, Dr. Caress Schenk and Aleksandr Motin at Nazarbayev University, and Chekhros Kilichova at Lund University, who made the onboarding process and my stay in Kazakhstan comfortable, and finally, Aida Yessimova for her research assistance.
15th anniversary celebrations at Nazarbayev University.The atrium at Nazarbayev University with the Kazakhstan flag in the middle. The atrium is situated in the middle of the complex with skywalks that connect to the different buildings. A convenient setup for when the temperature dips to about -20 degrees Celsius in the winters (Astana is the second-coldest capital city after Ulaanbaatar).
Posing in front of the NU campus (Turan Avenue entrance) with an electric scooter that is popular across Central Asia.The grant helped me to establish networks with academics and policymakers across Kazakhstan. Picture from one such interview location- Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, which is another large university in Kazakhstan.Nazarbayev University at night (Kabanbay Batyr Avenue entrance)
Syrian refugees are deemed as overt point of contention in Turkey politics since 2011 Syrian civil war. As there has been incremental influx of Syrian to Turkey from this period, ongoing debate about their presence and status determine the domestic politics intermittently. Turkey’s hosting of over 3 million registered Syrian refugees, and even more when accounting for unregistered individuals, has brought about societal unrest and challenges of refugees’ daily lives. The othering rhetoric toward refugees, often expressed by different segments of society in Turkey, has turned refugees into tools of political discourse and has led to direct and violent attacks. While facing xenophobic attitudes, refugees have become an essential part of the labor market, particularly in low-wage sectors. Grappling with precarious working conditions and marginalization, refugees’ desire to return to Syria following the fall of Assad has created ambivalence, given the instability in Syria and their already established livelihoods in Turkey.
Refugees are not the only cohort experiencing a critical duality; the Turkish government has also long pursued contradictory refugee policies. While the government promotes repatriation programs, particularly following the regime change in Syria, its simultaneous embrace of all refugees through Islamic rhetoric creates dual policy for political power in Turkey. This duality creates ambiguity, normalizes violent attacks against refugees, and exacerbates unrest within society. Thus, it is urgent and essential for the Turkish government to take action to prevent further potential chaos in the country. This includes formalizing employment conditions for refugees to promote integration and protect workers’ rights, preventing new illegal crossings to reduce reliance on cheap labor, and ceasing interventions such as military operations for regional stability. In this regard, this policy paper is structured as follows: it first provides a broad background of the issue, followed by policy recommendations and implications. The paper also draws on insights gained from fieldwork observations and interviews.
Background
Examining the underlying causes of the Turkish government’s political ambivalence and the class-based ambivalence experienced by refugees provides comprehensive insights for shaping policy recommendations for the Turkish government. In this regard, the working conditions and legal status of refugees, along with public xenophobia, are critical matters to address. The high demand for cheap labor in industries has pushed refugees into low-paid, informal jobs. Thus, Syrian labor has been utilized to address labor shortages, particularly in agriculture and construction, due to their low-cost labor (Tasli-Karabulut & Sancak, 2024). Given that surplus value means the worker, in the process of production, creates more value than the value of their own labor-power (Marx, 1976), Turkish employees work approximately 48 hours per week in compliance with labor laws, Syrian refugees often work up to 60 hours, a clear violation of formal employment standards reflecting blatantly informal and exploitative labor conditions (Uygur et al., 2023).
Source: Getty Images
When it comes to legal status of Syrian refugees in Turkey, Syrian refugees derive their legal status from the Temporary Protection Regulation, stipulating that all Syrians who were forcibly displaced and arrived at or crossed Turkey’s borders are eligible for temporary protection (Ineli-Ciger, 2017). Since the legal framework of temporary protection granted to Syrians does not offer long- term residency or citizenship right, perpetuating uncertainty about their future (Güngördü-Saygi, 2024) many Syrians are obliged to live in these precarious conditions.
The Turkish government’s policy toward Syrian refugees reflects a duality. While President Erdoğan initially emphasized Turkey’s Islamic tradition of “Ansar”[1] hospitality, his administration later proposed a plan to repatriate one million Syrians before the 2023 elections. This ambivalence continued after Assad’s fall, with the Foreign Ministry announcing preparations for repatriation programs (YetkinReport, 2024), followed shortly by Erdoğan’s declaration that Syrians wishing to stay in Turkey could do so.
This study argues that, despite the public justification of refugee acceptance through Islamic solidarity, the government’s policies are driven by economic demands. The Turkish bourgeoisie’s reliance on cheap migrant labor in critical sectors demonstrate this dependency. Abdurrahman Baydemir, of the Union of Chambers and Commodity Exchanges of Turkey (TOBB), warns that repatriation would disrupt key industries and raise labor costs (Patronlar telaşlı, 2024). Similarly, former Interior Minister Süleyman Soylu criticized businesses for exploiting Syrian workers while simultaneously demanding their removal (Soylu’dan göçmen açıklaması, 2022). As demonstrated, while the government publicly expresses refugee repatriation, also having concerns about labor market disruptions continue to influence its approach.
Methodology
Anti-refugee sentiment in Turkey has pressured policymakers to adopt repatriation rhetoric. To explore the violent manifestations of such hostility, this study incorporates fieldwork conducted in Kayseri, where anti-refugee riots erupted in 2024 and lasted three days. Interviews were conducted with S.M., a Syrian refugee living in Kayseri for over 15 years who experienced the attacks firsthand; Y.S., a Turkish teacher who has worked closely with refugees; and K.E., a local resident near the site of the violence. These observations and interviews shed light on public sentiment and the precarious living conditions of refugees.
Research
Field observations in Kayseri following the riots (30 June–3 July 2024), allegations of a Syrian man sexually assaulting a Syrian child, triggering violent anti-refugee protests reveal severe restrictions on refugees’ mobility and security. Many discovered their workplaces and vehicles vandalized—burned or shattered—when they ventured out during quieter morning hours. Evening outings were avoided entirely due to the persistent unrest near their homes.
Interviews conducted in Kayseri provide the background of conditions and aspirations of refugees following the fall of Assad. S.M., a Syrian refugee who experienced violence firsthand, acknowledges that while xenophobic attitudes persist, they have slightly diminished. He expresses a desire to return to Syria but cites ongoing instability and inadequate infrastructure as barriers. This leaves him grappling with maintaining an established livelihood in Turkey amidst racism and precarious working conditions, creating a profound dilemma for his family.
Y.S., a Turkish language teacher for refugees, highlights that most refugees are willing to return to Syria if their living conditions improve in Syria, noting their preference for a minimalistic lifestyle despite being aware of their exploitation as cheap labor. In contrast, K.E., a resident near the site of the riots, argues that only a small number of refugees would return due to a lack of confidence in Syria’s stability. She also critiques the Turkish government’s inconsistent policies, emphasizing the absence of a comprehensive integration framework despite initial efforts to welcome refugees. These insights unleash the essential policy steps to be taken by the government.
Source: Buket Didem Ulu
Source: Efe Göztak
Policy Recommendations & Implications
Extend Equal Labor Rights to Refugees
Refugees have been utilized as cheap labor to meet the demands of the capitalist class, as evidenced by data on their extended working hours. The formalization of employment conditions for refugees should be the first step toward addressing these issues. Contrary to statements made by the former Interior Minister of Turkey regarding refugee working conditions, refugees should be granted the same labor rights as native workers. This change would not only ensure equity but also pave the way for union membership, enabling refugees to collectively advocate for their rights. Moreover, such measures would constitute an essential step toward integrating those refugees who will remain in Turkey permanently. While these actions may not completely resolve the dilemmas refugees face, they have the potential to significantly mitigate their precarious working conditions and improve their overall quality of life.
Prevent irregular migration
Turkey has implemented an open-door policy for Syrian refugees since the onset of the civil war. This policy has facilitated both legal refugee applications and illegal crossings. While exploitation in various forms is already a pressing issue for legal refugee workers, those who enter illegally face an even higher risk of being exploited under precarious working conditions, compounded by the constant fear of deportation.Preventing new illegal crossings serves two critical purposes. Firstly, it curtails the ability of employers to exploit these individuals as cheap labor, thereby reducing labor inequalities and ensuring fairer conditions for all workers. Secondly, it addresses societal unrest by easing public concerns about unchecked migration, which often result in xenophobia and social tensions.
Curb Cross-Border Operations
Another crucial step in addressing the refugees’ plight and preventing potential newcomers is for the government to cease its military interventions. Before the fall of Assad, Turkey conducted several military operations in Syria, such as the “Olive Branch” and “Spring Peace”, often in collaboration with the Turkish-sponsored Syrian National Army and other Islamist armed groups (Manukyan & Hovsepyan, 2022). These interventions, aimed at countering perceived Kurdish threats and securing strategic interests, frequently resulted in significant displacement. For instance, the UNHCR reported that Turkey’s “Olive Branch” operation uprooted around 151,000 people from Afrin (Refugees and Asylum Seekers in Türkiye, 2018).
Despite Assad’s fall, Turkey continues to justify such interventions under the pretext of addressing border security concerns, exacerbating refugee influxes and subsequent crises. Ending these operations, whether through direct military engagement or proxy forces, is essential for stabilizing affected regions and addressing the root causes of displacement. A withdrawal of foreign troops would not only mitigate refugee flows but also allow Syrians to independently organize and determine their own future.
Implications
Implementing of these policies in an integrated way addresses to mitigate societal unease, annihilate ambivalent of government and refugees as well. As a influential actor in Syria, Turkey’s decision to cease military and diplomatic interventions and withdraw its troops would send a strong message to the international community, potentially compelling other interventionist states to follow suit. This strategy represents a critical first step toward stabilizing Syria, creating conditions that could make the repatriation process more feasible. As demonstrated in the figure 1, the initial period following Assad’s fall saw a decline in the number of refugees in Turkey. A more stabilized Syria is likely to encourage an increasing number of Syrians to plan for future repatriation.
Figure 1: Registered Syrian Refugees in Turkey by date
Implementing a repatriation program after ceasing intervention in Syria can effectively reduce societal unrest. However, formalizing refugee labor is a crucial subsequent step to improve conditions for those remaining in Turkey. Integrating the remaining refugees through new regulations, particularly governing their working conditions, particularly working hours, can pave the way for eventual citizenship and eliminate existing ambivalence. Given that the repatriation of over 3 million refugees is unrealistic, a crucial prerequisite for integrating those who remain in Turkey is the legal formalization of their working conditions. This process will create a sense of equity among native workers and refugees, encouraging the perception that they belong to the same segment of society.
Additionally, maintaining the open-door policy, particularly regarding illegal crossings, exacerbates demographic challenges, promotes further exploitation, and leads increased xenophobic attacks. Preventing new illegal crossings is therefore essential to curb these issues and mitigate the exploitation of incoming refugees.Together, these measures can alleviate refugees’ precarious circumstances, creating opportunities for stability both in Turkey and Syria.
Conclusion
To sum up, addressing the challenges of Syrian refugees in Turkey requires considering all necessary actions to be taken by the government in their totality. Ceasing military interventions and withdrawing troops from Syria can contribute to stabilizing the region, encouraging repatriation, and reducing societal unrest. Domestically, formalizing refugee labor through equitable working regulations will improve living conditions and facilitate integration, while preventing new illegal crossings will mitigate exploitation and ease public concerns. These measures, implemented cohesively, can help eliminate the precarious conditions faced by refugees, resolve societal tensions, and provide a sustainable repatriation process for those willing to return to Syria.
Reference
Güngördü-Saygi, F. N. (2024). The Self-Settlement of Syrian Refugees in Türkiye: Dynamics, Challenges, and Refugee Agency. Perceptions: Journal of International Affairs, 29(1), 110–132.
Ineli-Ciger, M. (2017). Protecting Syrians in Turkey: A Legal Analysis. International Journal of Refugee Law, 29(4), 555–579. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijrl/eex042
Manukyan, T., & Hovsepyan, L. (n.d.). Turkish Domestic Determinants And Ankara’s Military Operations In Syria: Kurdish Threat And Expansionist Ambitions (5-21). https://doi.org/10.52837/2579-2970-2022.11.2-5
Marx, K. (1976). Capital: A critique of political economy. Vol. 1 (E. Mandel, Ed.; Repr). Penguin.
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Refugees and Asylum Seekers in Türkiye. (n.d.). UNHCR Türkiye. Retrieved November 13, 2024, from https://www.unhcr.org/tr/en/refugees-and-asylum-seekers-in-turkey
Soylu’dan göçmen açıklaması: Hepimiz buralara geldik bir yerlerden. (n.d.). birgun.net. Retrieved April 15, 2025, from https://www.birgun.net/haber/soylu-dan-gocmen-aciklamasi-hepimiz-buralara-geldik-bir-yerlerden-386622
Tasli-Karabulut, V., & Sancak, M. (2024). Vocational education and training: A pathway for refugees’ integration in the labour market? Lessons from Syrian refugees in Tarsus, Turkey. Industrial Relations Journal, 55(6), 401–424. https://doi.org/10.1111/irj.12442
Uygur, G., Gunaltay, A., & Rudnak, I. (2023). Job satisfaction and organizational commitment in Syrian refugee textile enterprises: A case study from Turkey. Problems and Perspectives in Management, 21(4), 13–24. https://doi.org/10.21511/ppm.21(4).2023.02
YetkinReport. (2024, December 8). Şam’ın düşmesinin ardından Fidan: “Suriyelilerin dönmesi önemli, çalışma başlattık.” Yetkin Report. https://yetkinreport.com/2024/12/08/samin-dusmesinin-ardindan-fidan-suriyelilerin-donmesi-onemli-calisma-baslattik/
[1] In Islam, the word “Ansar” refers to the people who helped the Prophet Muhammad and his companions when they migrated to Medina
Participating in MARS projects and becoming a visiting scholar at Leiden University is a great pleasure. My name is Yize. I am a PhD candidate from Nazarbayev University’s Eurasian Studies program. My research interests focus on contemporary Chinese migration in Eurasian countries, especially in the past decade, and cross-border mobility in the Belt and Road Initiative context. This interdisciplinary topic can be perceived from various angles. Still, my perspective leans toward political science, trying to explore how the BRI participating countries adjust their migration governance with the increasing cross-border mobility with China. As a country in migration transition, with the existing vast immigration network, the new generation of migration behavior is changing. China has become a new destination of immigration, which leaves a new gap for migration scholars to explore. Why did I choose Leiden as my place of secondment?
Before participating in the MARS project, when I did a literature review on this research topic, I read many research outputs on Belt and Road projects from the Leiden Asian Centre. Some scholars share similar interests, and I am eager to contact and talk with them in person. Then, the MARS project offered me the opportunity to pursue my research. In addition, my host at Leiden University is the political science department, a renowned research institute with worldwide fame that ranks very high globally. I was inspired by the contribution to migration theories from the Netherlands, particularly the switch from a migration receiving countries perspective started here in academic discussions.
A winter evening at Leiden University, photo taken by the author
Preparing for visiting is the first challenge with the visa application and seeking accommodation. I put my experience as an international migrant, which gives me a more vivid understanding of what people face when they are involved in global traveling. As an international student at my home university in Kazakhstan, I am a non-national of the country. I need to figure out how to apply for a Schengen visa in a third country to go to the Netherlands. It was not my first time to travel to the Schengen Zone, though I still have to familiarize myself with the category and required documents for my visit this time. I chose to submit all application material in my home country, China. Due to the holiday season, the process took a while. Such a procedure for me is intuitive to get the knowledge through self-taught. I also observed that an entire business is built around visa applications, and how people from the Global South use formal and informal practices to access their destinations. And how the authorities update their control policies to deal with the potential risks of visa fraud. Another challenge is seeking accommodation in Leiden. As a university town, the short supply of accommodation is a problem for those who want to pursue their academic goals in Leiden. And the newcomers, well-informed by such a situation, know that there is a team to assist students and staff in looking for a place, but the needs can not be fully satisfied. Realizing such a situation, I turned to the existing immigration networks: the Chinese international students’ community in Leiden. Luckily, I met another PhD student in Chemistry, who would like to host me in his apartment. New migrants to an unfamiliar place seeking help from their compatriots is always the first option. The information sharing is crucial for the newcomers to settle down and integrate shortly.
Leiden University provides the same level of help for scholars, regardless of whether they are short—or long-term. Guest researchers can get full access to all university facilities and libraries on both campuses in Leiden and The Hague. It was Leiden University’s 450th anniversary when I arrived at the beginning of February. A parade was held in front of the academic building. Leiden University and the town integrate with windmills and canals, and no fence separates the campus from the public; nearly all university buildings are open to the public.
Leiden University celebrates Dies Natalis: ‘Ahead of the times for 450 years’. Photo credited to https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/en/news/2025/02/dies-natalies-2025-en
I closely worked with the political science and area studies departments during my visit. The political science secretariat is arranged in a flexible office for all temporary, visiting researchers and lecturers to work there. A lounge on the same floor allows all staff to talk, grab coffee, and have lunch together. It is a more extensive department compared with my home university, and the research focuses on covering nearly all aspects of political science and international relations. In the Hague, another branch of the department benefits from the location and its importance in global affairs, especially in the field of International Law, which has put this department at the forefront of political science. For PhD students, there is a monthly PhD seminar, which usually invites senior researchers to talk about specific topics or give advice on job-seeking skills. Multiple workshops are also held each week. There is a particular one focused on migration studies. It is an interdisciplinary seminar, and I met scholars across the humanities and social sciences. By attending such academic activities, what impressed me the most was how researchers have already used Large Language Models and other AI tools to update their research approaches, especially in the design of comparative studies. Indeed, this marks the future direction of social science research; the AI tools can assist researchers to achieve what previous research designs could not.
Sakura blossoms in Leiden, Photo taken by the author
I was invited to deliver a short presentation on my research at the Leiden Political Economy Group (L-PEG) research seminar. The theme was introduced to the audience on my general research topic on the dynamics of migration trends between China and Central Asia under Belt and Road cooperation. They briefly went through the ongoing migration policy reform in Kazakhstan. I was happy to see that many audiences showed their great interest in what is happening in Central Asia and its Eastern neighbor. Lots of valuable questions and feedback were received from faculty and students. Leiden Institute for Area Studies (LIAS) has a significant team on China studies; I was surprised by the scale and how deeply their researchers go into China; they covered various aspects, from the art market to history in a particular dynasty. From professors to students, their Chinese is at an almost working proficiency level. As an area studies researcher, I believe that the language skills of the target country are a must-have for conducting high-quality research.
At the Leiden Political Economy Group (L-PEG) research seminar, photo taken by the author
Time flies in Leiden. When the secondment came to an end, I would like to say that such an experience was unforgettable and fruitful for me. As an entry-level researcher, this secondment allowed me to see the research frontier in migration studies at a world-leading university, which contributes to the generous support offered by the MARS projects. Hereby, I express my gratitude to the MARS team, who take care of the logistical issues of this visit. I am also thankful to Dr. Natter, who is my host in Leiden’s political science department, as well as Dr. Ennis from the Institute of Area Studies, for your support.
Alejandro Chehtman, Universidad Torcuato Di Tella (Argentina)
Coming to the University of Leiden to conduct research as part of the MARS project has been a momentous, fruitful experience. The city, its connections (to The Hague, Amsterdam, and other parts of Europe) and the collaboration with outstanding colleagues have provided me with the adequate context to advance my research, build professional and institutional connections, and enjoy one of the most beautiful places in the world.
During my time in Leiden, I concentrated on three pieces directly linked to the MARS project and its research agenda. I finished revising a piece which tackles the issue of foreign fighters, their typology, and their legal treatment under both International Humanitarian Law and the domestic migratory and criminal legal regimes. The piece focuses on the broader problem of equality between belligerents and offers a unified account of the conceptual contours and normative underpinning of the notion of combatant privilege. It has been accepted for publication with the Harvard International Law Journal and it is undergoing the second round of substantive revisions before being published this year.
During these two months, I was able to conduct much of the relevant research for a contribution to a book on Human Geopolitics and International Law, co-edited by Professors Larissa van den Herik, Giulia Pinzauti and Ida Asscher at the Grotius Centre in Leiden. The project explores how states instrumentalize individuals in broader geopolitical conflicts, and how International Law can address such practices. My contribution, in turn, focuses on extradition regimes in Latin America and their use to regulate the behaviour of individuals abroad through enforcement of domestic legal provisions. It tackles predominant approaches in the world, from collaboration and conflict, to avoidance, prohibitions and simplified arrangements. This project will bring me to Leiden again in June 2025, to discuss first drafts.
Third, I was able to begin my preliminary research on a piece concerning the influence of the Argentine (and Chilean) diasporas in building the ideas, legal arguments and institutional responses to state criminality during the late 1970s and early 1980s in the Southern Cone of Latin America. In particular, this research seeks to shed light on the networks build, key players, and central ideas imported to/from the region to shape the field we now know as transitional justice. Although this piece is in its very early stages, I was able to conduct vital preliminary work, and even conduct some interviews.
Finally, my time in Leiden was helpful in strengthening academic and personal relationships, as well as disseminating my work. I was kindly invited to give a lecture on the Argentine transition, in the Transitional Justice course for LLM students in Leiden. I gave presentations on my work on foreign fighters at the Universities of Genova and Bologna, in Italy, and on the birth of Anti-Impunity in Argentina at the European University Institute. I was welcome and supported throughout my stay by MARS wonderful colleagues Katharina Natter and Crystal Ennis. In short, these were fruitful months of careful research and exchange in a wonderful academic context. I very much look forward to my next secondment in 2026.
by Muattara Rakhimova, Tashkent State University of Law
Tashkent State University of Law (TSUL), especially the International Law and Human Rights Department, has close connections with Department of Sociology of Law of the Lund University in the frames of European Commission-funded project “MARS: Non-Western Migration Regimes in a Global Perspective” (project number 101130177). This relationship with the world-leading Lund University gives the opportunity to participate in the international and multi-disciplinary project, to develop the bilateral collaboration, opening new directions for cooperation. Within the scope of the “MARS: Non-Western Migration Regimes in a Global Perspective”, the research secondment of the professors of the TSUL took place in August and September of 2024 at the Department of Sociology of Law at the Lund University.
Muattara Rakhimova by the building of the Sociology of Law, Lund University
Throughout this period, we have engaged in joint research, conferences, and seminars. During these sessions, professors of TSUL conducted field research in social and legal sphere especially in migration and anticorruption spheres. This cooperation also led to the creation of various types of research seminars. Our stay at the university included research activities such as using library resources opportunities to interact with department staff and visiting scholars who attended conferences and seminars.
The extensive library collections of the Faculty and the University, covering regional and diverse topics, have greatly enriched our research on the above issues. Joint consultations with our colleagues at the department, namely with Professor Dr. Urinboev Rustam, played a key role in clarifying the structure, plan and composition of our articles. These interactions strengthened the theoretical and methodological foundation of our work.
Over the month, we had the honor of taking part in weekly seminars conducted by the department. One of these events was the presentation of a book on migration processes in Central Asia «Law, Society and Corruption. Lessons from the Central Asian Context», where the authors Rustamjon Urinboyev and Måns Svensson presented their work.
My name is Runavia Mulyasari and I am a visiting researcher at Leiden University from July to September 2024. As part of my research project on the new frontiers of Indonesia, I would like to share my experience of being seconded to the MARS project. In this project, I try to understand the role played by intermediaries in creating space for migrants in oil palm frontiers. In addition, I am using the lens of the frontier to reflect on my experience of being on secondment in Leiden, the Netherlands.
Understanding Kalimantan Frontiers from Archives
Reading the records in the Leiden Libraries, it became clear to me that the process of frontierisation in Kalimantan was a familiar process. According to the archives, frontierisation started in the colonial era, where it started through land acquisition, making the area the old frontier. The old frontiers have several characteristics, such as the areas being considered empty land, having no rules, and being rich in natural resources. The process of frontierisation has continued in many resource-rich regions, such as Kalimantan, with massive land transformation. The current frontierization in Kalimantan has different characteristics from the old frontier, where the situation is very dynamic with many actors, making Kalimantan a so-called ‘new resource frontier’ (De Jong, Knippenberg, & Bakker, 2017). The other characteristics of the areas are lack of laws and regulations (Nasir Gintu, 2024), high mobility and migration practices, high competition that often leads to conflict and violence (Rahmadian, 2023), and to some extent leads to the presence of many actors, including the intermediary actors such as a go-between.
Title: Aanleg van een weg naar een grote olieraffinaderij op Borneo of Sumatra-Probably between 1935 and 1941. Source: KITLV 45072 (accessed on 3rd of September 2024)
Kalimantan’s new frontier came just after the implementation of decentralisation in 2001, which led to the distribution of power from the central government to the regional government. In Kalimantan, this shift has triggered massive land transformation into oil palm, leading to many actors joining and competing in the new spaces, such as the government, multinational companies, NGOs, migrants, academics, local people, and intermediary actors such as brokers, middlemen and intermediaries, or what I have called go-betweens. These different actors come from different backgrounds and places, not just the people who live around the plantation who are interested in these new frontiers but also people from outside the plantations. It makes the frontier areas into a new space for migration.
Palmolieplantage West Kalimantan. Source: KITLV 160125 (accessed on 3rd of September 2024)
The presence of the plantations in Kalimantan is creating a new mechanism of life on the plantations (Li & Semedi, 2021). Driven by the demand for labour in the plantation system. It creates the imagination of better income and life while participating in the oil palm ecosystem. This has further encouraged people to move and migrate to this new oil palm frontier. Many migrants see oil palm as a place of hope and opportunity. However, the integration of migrants into this new oil palm frontier is not entirely organic. In most cases, the migration process takes place through the role of go-betweens. Intermediaries play an essential role not only in the process of mobility but also in the adaptation of migrants. Migrants who use the role of go-betweens are often the ones who successfully enter the new oil palm frontier.
Leiden as an educational frontier
Leiden, The Netherlands. Source: Author (August, 2024)
The conditions of frontierization in the hinterland of Kalimantan can also be found in different areas, such as in Leiden, the Netherlands, where I did my secondment. I flew from Indonesia to Leiden as a guest researcher. From a migration perspective, I was considered a contemporary migrant. As Tezcan (2024) mentioned, contemporary migration patterns today are predominantly temporary instead of permanent. Recent patterns of migration flow indicate that immigrants predominantly return to their country of origin or engage in circular migration (Favell, 2008). As an ‘educational’ contemporary migrant, I considered Leiden one of education’s frontiers. The idea of frontier comes from imagining the richness of academic resources and knowledge, where many actors interact to join and compete in this educational institution. By considering that richness, I define frontier education as a place and space to produce material and immaterial educational resources to support individuals or groups of intellectuals. In this sense, Leiden is a place of education-rich resources regarding valuable archives and centres of knowledge, especially for social sciences. Besides that, Leiden also has rich natural scenery and historical places, making it one of the most beautiful cities in the Netherlands and even popular among tourists. The combination of a knowledge centre and tourist centre makes Leiden one of the frontier places for academic migrants and tourists.
Leiden University, The Netherlands. Source: Author (August, 2024)
The process of living in frontier Leiden was challenging. As a frontier of education, Leiden has received 6,313 bachelor’s students (23% foreign nationals) and 5,915 master’s students (36% foreign nationals) who come from 120 Nationalities (www.universiteitleiden.nl). The data showed that academic migrants come from around the world to this city. The competition for students or researchers willing to study or work in Leiden started when they were in their country of origin (i.g., competing to enter Leiden University and looking for a scholarship). This academic competition has also shifted into other life challenges to become a ‘migrant’ in Leiden.
One example is finding accommodation, where the number of rented houses is limited. In this limitation of house resources, a go-between with a specific role of housing provider can be found. The go-betweens specific to housing providers appear in formal and informal forms. To deal with this limitation of housing resources, the academic migrants need to use the roles of go-betweens to get housing. Even Leiden University’s website also posted several ways to find housing websites from the legal go-between, both from non-profit housing organisations (room.nl/DUWO) or other commercial housing agencies or search engines (such as kamersleiden.nl, hospihousing.com, studentcity-leiderdorp.nl., and so on). However, the limitation of rent housing has forced the education migrants to access through different informal go-betweens by creating new connections and networks. To have access to these informal go-betweens, the education migrants start to join a network of housing through student groups or nation groups. Many educated migrants had no room or house to rent when they arrived in the Netherlands. They were forced to pay high prices to access rented houses, choosing to stay outside Leiden or sometimes preferring to rent ‘informal’ housing where they could not register as permanent addresses. It made the educational migrant’s situation very challenging while they started to adapt to the new cultures.
I also experienced a brief example of the frontier situation in Leiden. However, by understanding the strength of social relationships among the Indonesians living abroad, I start the room competition process by using the roles of informal go-betweens. My decision to take the risk of using the role of informal go-between is partly due to my agency, knowledge, and personal network. I connect with people who often rent their house through a friend who was taking a role as a go-between. Since my go-between and I are in the same network in Indonesia and graduated from the same university, through this dyadic relationship, I asked her for a shake to find accommodation for me in Leiden. My go-between started to collect the housing information, negotiate with the house owner, and ensure that the owner agreed to accommodate me during my stay. This process was followed by her giving me the number of the room owner, and in a week, I found a room by using my connection to my go-between.
Finding accommodation was relatively easy since I knew someone who could help me, but it was challenging for others without a good network. My networks worked well, and while I found people who could be my go-between, she started to allow me to smoothly adapt as a migrant in Leiden while finding a place for my stay. Through my go-between connection, which extended into her bubble of networks, I quickly found a place to stay, a bike to ride, and friends to connect with. However, it is very challenging for other students and researchers who have yet to learn how the Leiden frontier works. Many students and researchers need help finding housing, creating networks, and struggling with new academic atmospheres.
Meanwhile, in daily life outside of university, I used my networks to create new networks in Leiden. The process was smooth when I knew people, and using my close ties as a fictive kin to protect me in Leiden made me a ‘successful’ migrant in becoming a ‘Leiden resident’.
In the end, living in Leiden as one of the frontiers of education emphasises that not only structure and networks help people to live in this city. However, it is also necessary to show the agency and individual capabilities to create new relationships and maintain the networks. At least for my experience as a migrant, both network and agency become crucial to help me enter and become deeply involved in the migrant world in Leiden. Starting with relationships and living with others, asking and keeping curious about everything, are making me, as a migrant, gradually shift to be a Leiden resident for the past two months. In this sense, trying to become and participate in the Leiden society is also a form of connecting with the right go-betweens.
Concluding remarks Living in Leiden Frontier
Researching migration in different contexts and conditions with my places of secondment in Leiden makes me reflect that the migration process was not easy, especially for migrants who never leave their place in their entire lives. The red line between my research topic and my position as a researcher in Leiden is the migration process in the context of new frontiers. Shifting identity, adapting to culture, and connecting to people and things always puts a migrant between home and a new place. The values and norms of the migrants keep shifting between the past and present to support their translation process and shape their positionality. Within this interpretation, migration is about temporality. In the end, migration is always about becoming and living in between the place made by the ideas of hope, potential, and opportunity.
References
De Jong, E. B., Knippenberg, L., & Bakker, L. (2017). New frontiers: an enriched perspective on extraction frontiers in Indonesia. Critical Asian Studies, 49(3), 330-348.
Favell, A. (2008). The new face of East–West migration in Europe. Journal of ethnic and migration studies, 34(5), 701-716.
Li, T. M., & Semedi, P. (2021). Plantation life: corporate occupation in Indonesia’s oil palm zone. Duke University Press.
Nasir Gintu, M. (2024). National law and regional riches: Contesting natural resources in East Kalimantan, Indonesia (Doctoral dissertation, Nijmegen: Radboud University Press).
Rahmadian, G. (2023). Heart in violence: Everyday violence under the oil palm canopy of a Dayak community in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Doctoral dissertation: Radboud University.
Tezcan, T. (2024). The role of identification, intergroup contact, and group discrimination in shaping return and circular migration intentions: Recent Turkish immigrants in Germany and the Netherlands. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 0(0). https://doi-org.ezproxy.leidenuniv.nl/10.1177/13684302241253217
Acknowledgement
Before I end my post, I thank Lund University for providing me with the opportunity and funding to conduct research in Leiden within the MARS project. I am grateful to Leiden University, especially Prof. Bart Barendgert, who is willing to host me in Leiden. I am also thankful to Chekhros Kilichova (MARS project). Finally, I thank Prof. Pujo Semedi and the Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Universitas Gadjah Mada, for their support.
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